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This is the third in a seven-part series based on a paper the author submitted for a Masters of Religion (MRel) programme in Middle East and North Africa Studies with the Arab Baptist Theological Seminary in Beirut entitled “Analysis of and Applications from the Writings of Tertullian about Persecution for Today.” 

Throughout the history of the Church, Christians have often been forced to defend not only their beliefs but their very right to exist within society. In the early centuries of the Roman Empire, accusations, rumours, and public hostility frequently placed Christians at the mercy of hostile authorities. One of the most striking voices to emerge in their defence was Tertullian, the fiery North African writer from Carthage. In his writings, Tertullian combines rigorous legal reasoning, moral protest, and occasionally surprising rhetorical tactics to argue that Christians were being treated unjustly by Roman officials. His defence reveals both a deep commitment to justice under the law and moments of unconventional persuasion that continue to provoke reflection today.

In his polemics addressed to the Roman overlords presiding over the persecution of Christians in Carthage, Tertullian complained about the interrogation practices of the authorities and the perverse logic they employed. He points out that other criminals are tortured in order that they might admit their crimes. Not so with Christians. He says that in the interrogation of Christians, they are tortured not with the intention of extracting the truth of their beliefs, but rather with the desired outcome that they tell a lie (i.e. that they deny their Christian faith). Tertullian suggests that the prosecuting authorities are much quicker to believe these lies than the testimony of other criminals denying their wrongdoing.[1]

There is further injustice against Christians in the manner of court proceedings. Tertullian states that Christians are not granted a fair trial. They are not permitted to plead their case or have legal support. Interestingly, Tertullian makes an appeal to the law arguing that it is “against the law to condemn anybody undefended and unheard.” He argues that judges are primarily concerned about satisfying “public hatred” rather than upholding the law.[2]

Tertullian is unequivocal in his complaint that the persecution of Christians is wickedness and injustice. He doesn’t see fit simply to accept these cruelties. He appeals to the law, arguing that their treatment in the courts contravenes their legal rights. He refutes the defamatory accusations of child sacrifice, cannibalism and incest, inviting investigation. He affirms the good character of Christians and points out their benefit to the state – not least through the service of banishing evil spirits. It is clear that he is appealing for equality in society for Christians. In the Apology, he argued that Christians, who he states were not engaged in criminal or illicit activities as some in Carthage were, should not only benefit from “a somewhat milder treatment”, but rather should enjoy “a place among the law-tolerated societies.”[3]

Whilst it might seem an obvious point to make, it is nevertheless worth noting that Tertullian is advocating on behalf of his fellow Christians, and indeed that he makes an appeal to the law in the way that he does. It is certainly the case that this experience of Christians, suffering on account of their faith in contexts where the law should protect their freedoms, and enduring procedural injustices, continues into the present era. Taking just one current example of an Algerian pastor named Youssef Ourahmane, he has been sentenced on vague and spurious charges of “shaking the faith” of Muslims, and illegal worship. One organisation that seeks to support persecuted Christians pointed out that Pastor Youssef “was not informed of the original court hearing or verdict (two years in prison and a fine) until some time after the judgement.”[4] 

Another charity that provides legal support to persecuted Christians (ADF International) highlighted that “Violations of the rights of religious minorities are in violation of both international and domestic law. Algeria is a signatory to major human rights treaties, committing it to upholding the rights to freedom of religion and expression.”[5]  There are various organisations today that follow in the footsteps of Tertullian in their advocacy for Christians experiencing such circumstances, raising awareness of violations of the rights of Christians to a fair trial, appealing to the law in their defence. The aforementioned organisation, ADF International, quotes Galatians 5:1 as they state the Biblical foundation for their mission. “It is for freedom that Christ has set us free.”[6]

The Christian Threat to the State

In what might be interpreted as a thinly veiled threat, Tertullian suggests at one point that Christians are so great in number that if they did decide to rise up against their persecutors they would inflict great damage.[7]

In his address to Scapula, in another unexpected line of persuasion, he seems to suggest that the persecutors of Christians were prone to God’s punishment in the form of ill-health. To the Proconsul of Africa he wrote,

Nevertheless we wish that thy sickness, which followed soon after Mavilus of Adrumentum was by thee doomed to fight with lions, may have been only a warning; yet now, when, in a like time, it hath come back, may not blood have put in its claim?  Think, however, of what is to come. – We mean not to affright thee, whom we fear not.  My single wish is, that we Christians could shield all men from evil, by admonishing them, “not to war against God.”[8]   

This approach, presenting veiled threats of Christian uprising or deterioration in health, is unorthodox. Whilst it is impossible to know whether God indeed punished certain leaders because of their persecution of His people, it could not be concluded, based on the good health and longevity of a variety of the most terrible persecutors of Christ’s Church, that this is an inevitable consequence of presiding over such acts of oppression. Christians trust that unrepentant sinners will face judgement after they die, but are not so commonly inclined to attribute ill-health or ill-fortune in life to such activities.

It is also not an accepted approach, if this was in fact Tertullian’s intention, to allude to the possibility that Christians, quietly present in great numbers throughout society, could represent a physical threat to the state. In many cases, persecuting authorities do present false accusations and spurious charges claiming that Christians represent a threat to the state or are working as Western agents. As such, not only would it be unbiblical based on verses such as those found in Paul’s Letter to the Romans, chapter 13 (recognising nevertheless that there are nuanced interpretations of these verses for application in particularly challenging and repressive circumstances, such as the scholarly analysis of Solomon O. Ademiluka and application to the Nigerian context[9]),  it would be strategically unwise to threaten Christian rebellion against a nation’s rulers because it undermines the argument so often made to justify state and societal toleration. That argument runs that Christians are, in fact, only of great benefit to their neighbours and their rulers, not only because of their peaceful beliefs but because of the benevolent acts they undertake as a result of the doctrines of Christian faith.

Threatening a physical revolt of any kind would only serve to legitimise the false and ludicrous claims of authorities that seek to prosecute and imprison Christians for espionage or other charges relating to state security and stability. If you take the example of the Islamic Republic of Iran, where the Church has seen extraordinary growth under extremely repressive conditions, Christians have long been falsely charged with crimes relating to espionage and acting against national security. Since the more recent clashes with Israel, Iran’s Ministry of Intelligence (MOIS) has taken the opportunity to arrest and prosecute even greater numbers of Christians. In August, the MOIS announced that they had arrested over 50 Christians since the end of the conflict with Israel in June 2025. They have accused Christians, whom they routinely refer to as Zionists, of “anti-security” activities and even possession of arms, claiming that they are mercenaries of the famed and feared Israeli intelligence service, Mossad.[10] Amongst other examples, such charges have been used against Christians in North Korea[11][12], Russia[13], and Sudan[14].

Tertullian’s defence of Christians offers a fascinating combination of principled legal reasoning and provocative rhetoric. On the one hand, his arguments stand firmly within the tradition of appealing to justice, fairness, and the rule of law – principles that remain central to modern advocacy for religious freedom. On the other hand, some of his more unconventional warnings might be attributed to the emotional intensity of a persecuted minority struggling to be heard. Yet across the centuries, the core of his message remains compelling in its relevance: Christians should not be condemned on the basis of rumours, public hostility, or political expediency, but judged fairly according to the law. In this respect, Tertullian’s voice still echoes today wherever individuals and organisations seek justice for those whose faith places them at risk. In the article that follows, I will draw out additional Christian responses to persecution from the writings of Tertullian and his near-contemporaries which continue to resonate in the modern era.

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[1] Tertullian, The Apology, 5–6.

[2] Tertullian, The Apology, 3.

[3] Tertullian, The Apology, 62.

[4] ‘Algeria: Pastor’s Sentence Upheld’, Charity website, Middle East Concern, 3 May 2024, https://www.meconcern.org/2024/05/03/algeria-pastors-sentence-upheld/.

[5] ‘Algerian Pastor Defends Right to Religious Freedom, Appeals “Illegal Worshipping” Conviction’, Charity website, ADF International, 25 March 2024, https://adfinternational.org/news/pastor-youssef-appeal.

[6] ‘Religious Freedom Prevails: Restoring Religious Freedom as a Fundamental Right’, Charity website, ADF International, n.d., https://adfinternational.org/our-focus/religious-freedom.

[7] Tertullian, The Apology, 61.

[8] Tertullian, The Address of Q. Sept. Tertullian to Scapula Tertullus, Proconsul of Africa.

[9] Solomon O. Ademiluka, ‘Romans 13:1–7 in Relation to Nigerian Christians’ Attitudes towards Social Activism’, In Die Skriflig 53, no. 1 (n.d.), https://doi.org/10.4102/ids.v53i1.2467.

[10] ‘Ministry of Intelligence Admits Arresting over 50 Christians’, Charity website, Article18, 12 August 2025, https://articleeighteen.com/news/16285/.

[11] ‘South Korean Missionary Sentenced to Life of Hard Labour by North Korea’, The Guardian, 31 May 2014, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/31/south-korean-missionary-sentenced-to-life-of-hard-labor-by-north-korea.

[12] Hyung-Jin Kim, ‘South Korean Families Pray for Relatives Who Vanished into North Korean Prisons a Decade Ago’, Associated Press, 30 December 2024, https://apnews.com/article/north-korea-south-missionaries-prison-1373a5711447af5633af66301b8c2867.

[13] Hyung-Jin Kim, ‘South Korean Held in Russia on Espionage Allegation Is Missionary Helping the Needy, His Group Says’, Associated Press, 12 March 2024, https://apnews.com/article/south-korea-russia-missionary-espionage-arrest-298ca3982cb2691437d02331e9ccc766.

[14] ‘Trial of Czech Journalist and Pastors Continues in Khartoum’, The Sudan Tribune, 29 November 2016, https://sudantribune.com/article/59204.

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Miles Windsor serves as Director of Strategic Campaigns, International Strategies, at the Religious Freedom Institute. The article series is based on a paper that Windsor submitted for his Masters of Religion (MRel) programme in Middle East and North Africa Studies, with the Arab Baptist Theological Seminary (ABTS Lebanon) in Beirut entitled “Analysis of and Applications from the Writings of Tertullian about Persecution for Today.” The original paper focused on the writings of Quintus Septimus Florens Tertullianus (Tertullian of Carthage), identifying parallels between historic and contemporary persecution experiences and responses, with analysis.